turkey

The development of women's studies in Turkey in academic units at universities in the 1990s owes much to the changes in social and cultural politics in the country which were accelerated in the 1970s and 1980s. In this period, activist women aimed at eliminating the androcentric biases and the unbalanced gender dynamics of epistemology in social sciences (Kandiyoti 1996, 2–3, Abadan-Unat 1995, 15). The 1980 coup d'état created a political vacuum in which several women's groups formed a movement and expressed a secular response to the rising Islamic fundamentalism (Y. Arat 1995, 80, Doltaş 1995, 61).

The 1980s mark the initial efforts of mapping histories and preparing translations of feminist research that developed outside Turkey. Women's journals and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) focused on issues such as domestic violence , women's rights, and political participation. A group of women established the journal Somut (Concrete) in 1983. Several publications followed this initial attempt (Y. Arat 1995, 80), including feminist (sic), and the socialist feminist journal Kaktüs (Cactus). The Womens' Solidarity Association was established in 1989. The Women's Library in Istanbul, established in 1991, is the first and only documentation center that houses information on women in many languages.

After these developments outside academia, the institutionalization of academic women's studies in Turkey developed in the early 1990s in two distinctive structures: in research centers with interdisciplinary research teams and in departments with courses in graduate and undergraduate programs. The development and institutionalization of women's and gender studies in Europe and the United States influenced Turkish academia. For example, the 1991 meeting organized by Frauen Anstiftung in Bonn made scholars think about institutionalization and its effects (Akkent 1994).

Marmara University Research and Implementation Center for the Employment of Women was established in 1992. Istanbul University Women's Research and Education Center launched its classes in the academic year 1991/2, and the Women's Studies Department opened in 1993 with an inter disciplinary curriculum for graduate students.

Ankara University Women's Studies Center (KASAUM) was established in 1993 with an interdisciplinary perspective for feminist research, education, and networking with women's organizations and NGOs. The Department of Women's Studies was established in 1996, offering courses on theories and methodology of social sciences and women's studies, history of feminist thought, and the women's movement.

The Middle East Technical University (METU) Gender and Women Studies Center organizes seminars and activities on women's issues, publishes articles and research, provides gender training, and maintains close links with women's NGOs. Gender and Women's Studies at METU is an interdisciplinary program, established in 1994 as a part of the Graduate School of Social Sciences. The Gender and Women's Studies Graduate Program is the only program in Turkey that carries the word “gender” in its title, offering both thesis and non-thesis alternatives.

Mersin University Women Studies Center (MERKAM) was established in 1997 with different working groups, mostly using volunteer efforts of the academic personnel and NGOs. They focus on forming and maintaining databases and publications, networking with NGOs, organizing seminars and meetings, and offering vocational training for women.

Çankaya University Women's Research Center and Van Yüzüncü Yıl University's Women's Research Center (YUKAM) were both established in 1998. Ege University Women's Studies Research Center conducts research on women's issues. Established in 2000, Ege University Women's Studies Graduate Program offers classes on gender and the history of the women's movement.

Other centers for women's studies include Atılım University (Ankara), Çukurova University (Adana), Eskişehir Anadolu University (Eskişehir), Gazi University (Ankara), and Hacettepe University (Ankara).

Gender courses are also integrated into the curricula of other academic establishments, mostly in the departments of sociology, anthropology, and literature. There is a debate as to whether women's studies is a discipline in and of itself or an interdisciplinary area. Questions relate to pedagogical and methodological issues. Curricula for women's and gender studies programs are not yet fully expanded to include issues such as queer theory, race, and ethnicity. There seems to be a discrepancy in communication and activities between urban centers and those that are less urban, not to mention the weakness of links between women within and outside academia. Particular issues related to Turkey need to be developed rather than borrowing paradigms from abroad. The boom in enrollment in women's studies centers and programs faces a decline since there are limited work options after graduation.

azerbaijan

In Azerbaijan, the establishment of women's studies aimed to explain why women have always been degraded by men in the economic, social, decision-making, and human development spheres. A sub-regional conference entitled “Women's Rights are Human Rights: Women and Military Conflict” was held in Baku with the participation of governmental and non-governmental representatives from Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan on 18–20 May 1998 (Mustafayev 2001, 8). The Gender and Human Rights Research Unit (GIHAB) began its activities with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Gender Project in 1998 with a conference on gender issues, mainly on education, human rights, and women's refugee problems (GIHAB 2002, 5).

Issues related to gender education were initiated by the UNDP Gender Project and, at the end of 1998, activities were implemented in this direction as mentioned in the plan for action of the project's second phase. At the same time, the Open Society Institute-Soros Foundation and the Central European University based in Budapest started certain projects in higher educational institutions in Azerbaijan concerned with gender education.

There are 42 state and 19 private higher educational institutions in the Azerbaijan Republic. Western University, Azerbaijan Public Administration Academy, Baku State University, Khazar University, and Baku Slavic Languages University offer courses on gender.

Gender courses on political science, philosophy, psychology, sociology, culture, legal aspects, Azeri history, and economics are open to all departments of the Western University. In addition to developing syllabi, the Gender Studies Center has also directed academic activities of teachers and masters and bachelors program students, and made proposals regarding the incorporation of gender and peace-related topics in course and diploma theses.

Special focus was placed on development of materials for the national scientific conference organized on 23 December 2000, “Integration of Gender Theory into Social and Humanitarian Sciences,” where 50 scholars, researchers, teachers, masters students, and leaders and specialists from gender centers participated.

At the Baku State University, gender courses are given in the psychology, sociology, and philosophy departments and are integrated into different subjects, such as ancient history, international relations, and English. Baku Slavic Languages University places more emphasis on eliminating the gender stereotypes apparent in textbooks and aims to develop focused gender pedagogy.

The Women's Studies Center at Khazar University was established in 1991, aiming at protecting and promoting women's rights. It maintains close collaboration with Purdue University and implements joint programs. It is a member of the Global Sisterhood Institute. In 1997, the center set broader goals and reinforced studies on women's issues. It has invited scholars from the United States, Western Europe, Turkey, Pakistan, Israel, and Norway who run sessions on gender. Students at the Women's Studies Center have maintained close relationships with women refugees and internationally displaced persons, and encouraged them to support the peace-building process in Southern Caucasus (Khazar University 2001–3, 125).

kyrgyzstan

The Department of Equal Rights in Kyrgyz-Russian Slavonic University has a special gender studies course, taught for the past five years. Kyrgyz National University, Bishkek Humanitarian University, Osh State University, and Kyrgyz Pedagogical University have special courses on gender within the sociology, history, and pedagogy departments.

Before proposing the new gender studies program for implementation in 2003/4, the National Council on Gender Development in cooperation with UNDP, UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund), and SFK (Soros Foundation Kyrgyzstan) representatives provided two round tables on gender studies perspectives in Kyrgyzstan. Although gender courses have been taught in various departments, the necessity for professional development by increasing knowledge about gender theory and methodology was stressed. Participants at educational events will receive the opportunity to prepare the syllabus and approve it in their universities (Shishkereva 2003).

tajikistan

In Tajikistan, gender studies were launched in 1996. For the first time sociological research focused on gender roles within the family and the sources of gender inequality. Studies have looked at women's participation in entrepreneurship and women's legal status and local legislation on gender equality have been examined. The results of sociological research were published in a series of brochures called Women in Transition in Tajikistan . A statistical and analytical study of modern gender statistics was conducted and published in the collection Gender Statistics in the Republic of Tajikistan , in addition to the statistical collections on Women and Men in Tajikistan and Family and Children in the Republic of Uzbekistan. In 1999, Gender and Culture, a textbook, was published for high school students through the activities of non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The government approved a program entitled “The Direction of Government Policy on Equal Rights and Equal Opportunities for Women and Men, 2001–2010.”

turkmenistan

The issues of gender development in Turkmenistan have become integral to government policy. A National Action Plan on the Advancement of Woman was drafted with the United Nations as follow-up to the Fourth World Conference on the Advancement of Woman (Beijing 1995) and the results of its implementation are detailed in the Report on Implementation of the National Action Plan 2000. Also in 2000 the National Statistical Institute of Turkmenistan (NTISF) prepared a Review of the National System of Collection, Analysis, and Distribution of Data on Population and Reproductive Health. In 2001 NTISF published Gender Aspects of Socioeconomic Indicators. Materials from the seminar “Gender Equality in Compliance with Turkmenistan's Constitutions and Legislation” were published in 2002. Among the materials from the International Summer School (“Gender Studies in Central Asia”) was a course on “Gender in the Economy.” This course was designed by the faculty members of the Turkmenistan State University and the Women's Resource Center. According to the brochure “Gender Studies and Gender Awareness in Turkmenistan: Problems of Higher Education” the university students of law and business and management attended a special 14-hour course on “Gender and Economics.”

kyrgyzstan

In Kyrgyzstan the international environment stimulated public awareness of the concept of gender in the second half of the 1990s. Ideas about gender appear in all government programs. Among them are “Development Strategy for the Kyrgyz Republic to 2010”; “National Plan for the Development of Education in the Kyrgyz Republic to 2015”; and the “National Plan for Achieving Gender Equality in the Kyrgyz Republic, 2002–2006.” In March 2003 a law outlining government guarantees for the provision of gender equality was approved. There is ongoing preparation of a 36-hour course on “Basic Theories of Gender Equality,” which will be obligatory for all students. Since 2002 Kyrgyzstan has been attempting to integrate gender awareness into the ministries and other governmental bodies.

uzbekistan

Uzbekistan was one of the first Central Asian countries to take measures to provide equal rights for men and women. In 1995 Uzbekistan ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), intending to include these protections in national legislation. In 1996 the UNDP initiated introductory workshops on gender awareness. The term “gender” became known and was included in government vocabulary. However, gender awareness among NGOs is much better developed, and since 1996 NGOs have been conducting sociological research in gender studies. Research has been undertaken on rural women, on gender in basic textbooks, and on violence against women. A new course on “Basics of Gender: Theory and Practice” and a textbook for high school students was designed. The ministry of education approved the course and the textbook and they will be incorporated into the humanities curriculum in national universities.